Sources
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To help others I have copied into this posting all the early texts that I have access to on ushnu, loosely grouped into sections referring to the Cuzco ushnu and to provincial Ushnu (though some references refer to both). Hopefully this will be of use to those who want to make up their own minds about the Incan ushnu, or do further research.
Picture left: Weiners 1880 engraving of the ushnu at Jauja - for the reference to this site see under provincial ushnu below.
Cuzco Ushnu
'When these verquis were filled, they emptied them into a round stone in the middle of the plaza, and which they held to be an idol, and it was made around a small opening by which it (the chicha) drained itself off through some pipes which they had made under the ground. This (words missing) had a sheath or choir which in (words missing) in the whole of it and covered it up, and thus they had built a sort of hut of woven mats, round, with which (words missing) night they covered it in the same manner...........For the Sun, they had placed a bench in the centre of the plaza, all garnished with mantles of feathers, very colourful and very delicate, and here they placed this bundle, grounding the halberds on either side of him. Holding the axes erect, then, they gave this Sun food to eat...and they gave him drink. Then, when they burned the dinner of the Sun.....all the ashes which were left over from these fires they threw into the round stone trough shaped like a teat, which, as I say, was in the middle of the plaza' [Pizarro 1571 (1921)].
'when the sun stood fitting in the middle between the two pillars they had another pillar in the middle of the plaza, a pillar of well worked stone about one estado (about 6 feet) high, called the Ushnu, from which they viewed it. This was the general time to plant in the valleys of Cuzco and surrounding it' [Anonymous Chronicler ca.1570 (1989)].
'All the Indians of the area came together in the main plaza called Haukaypata and there, with much ceremony, they made their sacrifices on a pillar of stone with its shelf called ushnu in the middle of the plaza. [They sacrificed] llamas, valuable clothing, and many other things, and, at the foot of the bench they poured much corn beer. They said they were offering it to the sun' [Discurso ca. 1570 (1990)].
'Then the people, who were armed as if for war, went to the square of Cuzco....in the middle of the square, where stood the urn of gold which was like a fountain, that was used at the sacrifice of chicha, four hundred men of war assembled' [Molina 1575 (1873)].
Interestingly John Hemming translates this same passage as:
'a golden usnu which was like a fountain into which they poured a sacrifice of chicha' [Molina 1575 (1982)].
Molina goes onto to say in several other passages describing the same feast:
'The priests carried the image of the sun, and placed it on a bench prepared for it in the square. The priests of the creator likewise brought forth his image, and deposited it in its place...each had its bench of gold....The Ynca....had a great vase of gold containing chicha. It was received by the priest, who emptied it into the urn, which as has been said, is like a stone fountain plated with gold. This urn had a hole made in such a way, that the chicha could enter a pipe or sewer passing under the ground to the house of the Sun, the Thunder and the Creator' [Molina 1575 (1873)].
'The common people had to worship outside....Therefore, Inca Yupanque had placed in the middle of the square of Cuzco, where the pole of the gallows is now, a stone made like a sugarloaf pointed on top and covered with a strip of gold...And this stone was for the common people to worship, and the statue in the temple of the Sun was for the lords.....When the stone was placed in the middle of the square of Cuzco, first a large hole was made there where all the people of Cuzco, old and young alike, offered to the Sun as many pieces of gold as they saw fit. Afterward, they filled up the hole and built a stone font about one-half estado high. All around the font they buried some small gold statues....In the middle of the font they put the stone that represented the Sun....Once this was done....all the people of the city sacrificed a large number of sheep and lambs....there to that idol' [Betanzos 1553 (1996)].
'Of the seventh Inca, Yahuar-Huacac, who reigned in Cuzco...and the stone they call the stone of war was made in Cuzco, large and set with gold and precious stones' [Cieza de Leon 1553-4 (1976)].
'In the great square of Cuzco was the stone of war, in the shape of a sugar loaf, well enclosed, and full of gold' [Cieza de Leon 1553-4].
'Pachacuti [as general] went to the plaza where the stone of war was, wearing a puma skin on his head, to make it understood he would be as strong as that animal' [Cieza de Leon 1553-4 (1976)].
'On the celebrations and sacrifices made at the great and solemn feast known as Hatun Raimi....In the middle of the plaza they had erected, so they tell, a great theatre with tiers, covered with cloth of feathers thick with beads of gold, and great blankets of their finest wool, embroidered in gold and jewels. At the top of this throne the placed the figure.....' [Cieza de Leon 1553-4 (1976)].
'Usno was a pillar of gold where they drank to the Sun in the plaza' [Albornoz 1582 (2004)].
'Mango Inga named himself King Inca....throne and seat of the Inca called -usno - in Cuzco' [Guaman Poma 1615 (1980)].
'And after this was done, he [Wayna Qhapaq] was brought to the plaza of Haukaypata, where he had his capac usno [royal ushnu], like in Vilcas Waman, and he sits there, and so they say, all the great people and captains pay obedience to him, each with his own people' [Santacruz Pachacuti 1613 (1990)].
'The first was a stone called Usno, which was in the square of Hurin Aucaypata; this was the first guaca to which those who were being made orejones made offerings' [Cobo 1653 (1990)]
'The principle feast of the Sun.....the Inca went out at daybreak accompanied by his whole kin...to the main square of the city called Haucaipata....the Inca poured the contents of the vessel in his right hand, which was dedicated to the Sun, into a gold basin, and from the basin it flowed along a beautifully made stonework channel which ran from the square to the house of the Sun....Seated on his chair of solid gold which was placed on a gold platform, the Inca used to send his relatives....to drink in his name to the most eminent representatives of other tribes who were present' [Garcilaso de la Vega 1609 (1966)].
Provincial Ushnu
'[Wayna Qhapaq] also built in the plaza a certain place called Usno (and for another name Chuqui pillaca) where they sacrificed chicha to the Sun on its times and occasions' [Miguel Cabello de Valboa 1586 (1980)]
'Quizo Yupanqui arrived one morning at [Jauja at] daybreak. He came upon the Spaniards so suddenly that the first they knew was that they were surrounded on all sides. They did not even have time to dress, for they were still in bed. In this tumult they positioned themselves in an usno they had there as a fortress with any weapons they found most readily at hand. Anyone can imagine the confusion: for they never thought that the Indians would have the courage to attack them....The fighting lasted from the morning when the Indians arrived until the hour of vespers...and the Indians killed them all, and their horses and Negro servants' [Martin de Murua, 1590 (1974)]. [See engraving top left of this posting for an engraving of this ushnu.]
'There is another sacred place called ushnu on royal roads and in plazas of towns. They were in the shape of a ninepin and made of different kinds of stone or of gold or silver. To all they constructed buildings, made like towers of beautiful masonary, as I have been told, in many places such as Vilcas, Pucara, Old Guanaco, and Tiwanku. On the ushnu the lords sat to drink to the sun and made many sacrifices to it' [Cristobal de Albornoz 1582 (1990)].
'at most they made in such places a stone altar, which they called osno, for their sacrifices' [The Anonymous Jesuit ca 1585 (1980)].
'in the city of Caxamarca, on his throne, usno' [Guaman Poma 1615 (1980)].
'The Incas had in their empire special places to make their sacrifices, called usno. These consisted of a stone fixed in the ground that served as a seat from which they invoked their god' [Guaman Poma 1615 (1980)].
'Thus he entered the most important town, where they had in the plaza a certain seat which resembled a high platform and in the middle of the platform, a basin full of stones. On reaching the town, the Inca climbed up on that platform and sat their on his chair. From there he could see everyone in the plaza, and they could all see him. The brought out before him many lambs whose throats they slit in his presence, and they offered them to him. Then they poured out much chicha into that basin which was there for sacrifices. The Inca drank with them, and they with him. Then he came down from there, danced and sang with them, clasping their hands, joining to make a circle, and he ate with them' [Betanzos 1557 (1996)].
'a great royal plaza, in the middle of which was a tall rectangular platform with a high stairway leading up to it. The Inca and three lords would ascend this to address the people and to review the fighting men when they held parades and assemblies' [Cristobal de Molina 1553 (1982)].
'a platform surrounded by masonary, five estados high [approximately 9m tall]. It has a stone staircase, admirably made and cut in a theatrical manner. This is where the Inca used to go in person to be seen, and on top of it were two large seats covered in gold at that time, where the Inca and his wife used to sit, as if on tribunes, and from which they worshipped the sun. When he was on this theatre or throne, all his guard protected its gates with much vigilance. He would sit there under a great canopy of plumage of a thousand colours, and the posts on which this awning rested were of gold. Twelve very aged captains of his own lineage used to carry the canopy...the sacrifices they performed were as follows...they made these sacrifices, praying for health and good fortune for the Inca' [Francisco de Carvajal 1586 (1982)].
'toward the rising sun, there was a shrine for the Lord-Incas, of stone from which small terraces emerged, about six feet wide, where other enclosures came together, and at the centre there was a bench where the Lord-Inca sat to pray, all of a single stone so large that it was eleven feet long and seven feet wide, with two seats cut for the aforesaid purpose. They say this stone used to be covered with jewels of gold and precious stones to adorn this place they so venerated and esteemed, and on another stone, not small, now in the middle of this square, like a baptismal font, was where they sacrificed animals and young children (so they say), whose blood was offered up to the gods. On these terraces the Spaniards have found some of the treasure that was buried there' [Cieza de Leon 1553-4 (1976)].
'On the field side of the square [at Cajamarca] is a stone fort, which is connected with it by a stone staircase inside the walls' [Xerez 1534 (1968)].
'When these verquis were filled, they emptied them into a round stone in the middle of the plaza, and which they held to be an idol, and it was made around a small opening by which it (the chicha) drained itself off through some pipes which they had made under the ground. This (words missing) had a sheath or choir which in (words missing) in the whole of it and covered it up, and thus they had built a sort of hut of woven mats, round, with which (words missing) night they covered it in the same manner...........For the Sun, they had placed a bench in the centre of the plaza, all garnished with mantles of feathers, very colourful and very delicate, and here they placed this bundle, grounding the halberds on either side of him. Holding the axes erect, then, they gave this Sun food to eat...and they gave him drink. Then, when they burned the dinner of the Sun.....all the ashes which were left over from these fires they threw into the round stone trough shaped like a teat, which, as I say, was in the middle of the plaza' [Pizarro 1571 (1921)].
'when the sun stood fitting in the middle between the two pillars they had another pillar in the middle of the plaza, a pillar of well worked stone about one estado (about 6 feet) high, called the Ushnu, from which they viewed it. This was the general time to plant in the valleys of Cuzco and surrounding it' [Anonymous Chronicler ca.1570 (1989)].
'All the Indians of the area came together in the main plaza called Haukaypata and there, with much ceremony, they made their sacrifices on a pillar of stone with its shelf called ushnu in the middle of the plaza. [They sacrificed] llamas, valuable clothing, and many other things, and, at the foot of the bench they poured much corn beer. They said they were offering it to the sun' [Discurso ca. 1570 (1990)].
'Then the people, who were armed as if for war, went to the square of Cuzco....in the middle of the square, where stood the urn of gold which was like a fountain, that was used at the sacrifice of chicha, four hundred men of war assembled' [Molina 1575 (1873)].
Interestingly John Hemming translates this same passage as:
'a golden usnu which was like a fountain into which they poured a sacrifice of chicha' [Molina 1575 (1982)].
Molina goes onto to say in several other passages describing the same feast:
'The priests carried the image of the sun, and placed it on a bench prepared for it in the square. The priests of the creator likewise brought forth his image, and deposited it in its place...each had its bench of gold....The Ynca....had a great vase of gold containing chicha. It was received by the priest, who emptied it into the urn, which as has been said, is like a stone fountain plated with gold. This urn had a hole made in such a way, that the chicha could enter a pipe or sewer passing under the ground to the house of the Sun, the Thunder and the Creator' [Molina 1575 (1873)].
'The common people had to worship outside....Therefore, Inca Yupanque had placed in the middle of the square of Cuzco, where the pole of the gallows is now, a stone made like a sugarloaf pointed on top and covered with a strip of gold...And this stone was for the common people to worship, and the statue in the temple of the Sun was for the lords.....When the stone was placed in the middle of the square of Cuzco, first a large hole was made there where all the people of Cuzco, old and young alike, offered to the Sun as many pieces of gold as they saw fit. Afterward, they filled up the hole and built a stone font about one-half estado high. All around the font they buried some small gold statues....In the middle of the font they put the stone that represented the Sun....Once this was done....all the people of the city sacrificed a large number of sheep and lambs....there to that idol' [Betanzos 1553 (1996)].
'Of the seventh Inca, Yahuar-Huacac, who reigned in Cuzco...and the stone they call the stone of war was made in Cuzco, large and set with gold and precious stones' [Cieza de Leon 1553-4 (1976)].
'In the great square of Cuzco was the stone of war, in the shape of a sugar loaf, well enclosed, and full of gold' [Cieza de Leon 1553-4].
'Pachacuti [as general] went to the plaza where the stone of war was, wearing a puma skin on his head, to make it understood he would be as strong as that animal' [Cieza de Leon 1553-4 (1976)].
'On the celebrations and sacrifices made at the great and solemn feast known as Hatun Raimi....In the middle of the plaza they had erected, so they tell, a great theatre with tiers, covered with cloth of feathers thick with beads of gold, and great blankets of their finest wool, embroidered in gold and jewels. At the top of this throne the placed the figure.....' [Cieza de Leon 1553-4 (1976)].
'Usno was a pillar of gold where they drank to the Sun in the plaza' [Albornoz 1582 (2004)].
'Mango Inga named himself King Inca....throne and seat of the Inca called -usno - in Cuzco' [Guaman Poma 1615 (1980)].
'And after this was done, he [Wayna Qhapaq] was brought to the plaza of Haukaypata, where he had his capac usno [royal ushnu], like in Vilcas Waman, and he sits there, and so they say, all the great people and captains pay obedience to him, each with his own people' [Santacruz Pachacuti 1613 (1990)].
'The first was a stone called Usno, which was in the square of Hurin Aucaypata; this was the first guaca to which those who were being made orejones made offerings' [Cobo 1653 (1990)]
'The principle feast of the Sun.....the Inca went out at daybreak accompanied by his whole kin...to the main square of the city called Haucaipata....the Inca poured the contents of the vessel in his right hand, which was dedicated to the Sun, into a gold basin, and from the basin it flowed along a beautifully made stonework channel which ran from the square to the house of the Sun....Seated on his chair of solid gold which was placed on a gold platform, the Inca used to send his relatives....to drink in his name to the most eminent representatives of other tribes who were present' [Garcilaso de la Vega 1609 (1966)].
Provincial Ushnu
'[Wayna Qhapaq] also built in the plaza a certain place called Usno (and for another name Chuqui pillaca) where they sacrificed chicha to the Sun on its times and occasions' [Miguel Cabello de Valboa 1586 (1980)]
'Quizo Yupanqui arrived one morning at [Jauja at] daybreak. He came upon the Spaniards so suddenly that the first they knew was that they were surrounded on all sides. They did not even have time to dress, for they were still in bed. In this tumult they positioned themselves in an usno they had there as a fortress with any weapons they found most readily at hand. Anyone can imagine the confusion: for they never thought that the Indians would have the courage to attack them....The fighting lasted from the morning when the Indians arrived until the hour of vespers...and the Indians killed them all, and their horses and Negro servants' [Martin de Murua, 1590 (1974)]. [See engraving top left of this posting for an engraving of this ushnu.]
'There is another sacred place called ushnu on royal roads and in plazas of towns. They were in the shape of a ninepin and made of different kinds of stone or of gold or silver. To all they constructed buildings, made like towers of beautiful masonary, as I have been told, in many places such as Vilcas, Pucara, Old Guanaco, and Tiwanku. On the ushnu the lords sat to drink to the sun and made many sacrifices to it' [Cristobal de Albornoz 1582 (1990)].
'at most they made in such places a stone altar, which they called osno, for their sacrifices' [The Anonymous Jesuit ca 1585 (1980)].
'in the city of Caxamarca, on his throne, usno' [Guaman Poma 1615 (1980)].
'The Incas had in their empire special places to make their sacrifices, called usno. These consisted of a stone fixed in the ground that served as a seat from which they invoked their god' [Guaman Poma 1615 (1980)].
'Thus he entered the most important town, where they had in the plaza a certain seat which resembled a high platform and in the middle of the platform, a basin full of stones. On reaching the town, the Inca climbed up on that platform and sat their on his chair. From there he could see everyone in the plaza, and they could all see him. The brought out before him many lambs whose throats they slit in his presence, and they offered them to him. Then they poured out much chicha into that basin which was there for sacrifices. The Inca drank with them, and they with him. Then he came down from there, danced and sang with them, clasping their hands, joining to make a circle, and he ate with them' [Betanzos 1557 (1996)].
'a great royal plaza, in the middle of which was a tall rectangular platform with a high stairway leading up to it. The Inca and three lords would ascend this to address the people and to review the fighting men when they held parades and assemblies' [Cristobal de Molina 1553 (1982)].
'a platform surrounded by masonary, five estados high [approximately 9m tall]. It has a stone staircase, admirably made and cut in a theatrical manner. This is where the Inca used to go in person to be seen, and on top of it were two large seats covered in gold at that time, where the Inca and his wife used to sit, as if on tribunes, and from which they worshipped the sun. When he was on this theatre or throne, all his guard protected its gates with much vigilance. He would sit there under a great canopy of plumage of a thousand colours, and the posts on which this awning rested were of gold. Twelve very aged captains of his own lineage used to carry the canopy...the sacrifices they performed were as follows...they made these sacrifices, praying for health and good fortune for the Inca' [Francisco de Carvajal 1586 (1982)].
'toward the rising sun, there was a shrine for the Lord-Incas, of stone from which small terraces emerged, about six feet wide, where other enclosures came together, and at the centre there was a bench where the Lord-Inca sat to pray, all of a single stone so large that it was eleven feet long and seven feet wide, with two seats cut for the aforesaid purpose. They say this stone used to be covered with jewels of gold and precious stones to adorn this place they so venerated and esteemed, and on another stone, not small, now in the middle of this square, like a baptismal font, was where they sacrificed animals and young children (so they say), whose blood was offered up to the gods. On these terraces the Spaniards have found some of the treasure that was buried there' [Cieza de Leon 1553-4 (1976)].
'On the field side of the square [at Cajamarca] is a stone fort, which is connected with it by a stone staircase inside the walls' [Xerez 1534 (1968)].
'Chalco Mayta, a venerable chieftain was left governor of Quito with the priviledges of a vice-Inca; he was allowed to travel in a litter, eat off gold service, and sit on the golden osno stool' [Cieza de Leon 1553-4 (1976)].
'Oh Viracocha, Lord of the beginning, Lord who said that be man, that be woman, creator of all (parts of the world ?), where are you?, I cannot see you?, are you above, are you below, or are you on your throne (usnu)? [Santa Cruz Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamaygua 1613 (1997)].
'Walling an usnu' - translation of 'husnocta pircaspa' from the Huarochiri manuscript [1598-1608 (1997)]. Meddens summarises the context - 'when the huaca, Llocllay Huancupa, disappeared the people grieved and searched for him. They went to the place where Lanti Chumpi, a local woman, had first discovered him and build him a step-pyramid' - ie walling an usnu [Meddens 1997].
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Link to the next post in this series - http://ushnu.blogspot.com/search/label/updates
Image Credit
Charles Weiners 1880 engraving of the Jauja (Hatun Xauxa) ushnu [D'Altroy 1992]
References
Albornoz, Cristobal de - in Bauer [2004] and Hyslop [1990]
Anonymous Chronicler - in Aveni
Aveni, Anthony. Empires of Time. 1989, Basic Books
Bauer, Brian S. Ancient Cuzco, Heartland of the Inca, 2004, University of Texas Press
Betanzos, Juan de. Narrative of the Incas. Translated by Hamilton and Buchanan, 1996. University of Texas Press
Cabello de Valboa, Miguel - in Gasparini and Margolies [1980]
Carvajal, Francisco - in Hemming and Ranney [1982]
Cieza de Leon, Pedro de. The Incas of Pedro Cieza de Leon. Translated by Harriet de Onis, 1976. University of Oklahoma Press
Cobo, Bernabe. Inca Religion and Customs. Translated by Roland Hamilton, 1990. University of Texas Press
D'Altroy, Terence. Provincial Power in the Inka Empire. 1992, Prentice Hall and IBD
Garcilaso de la Vega, Inca. Royal Commentaries of the Incas and General History of Peru. Translated by HV Livermore. 1966, University of Texas
Hemming, John. The Conquest of the Incas, 1974. Macmillan London
Hemming, John and Edward Ranney. Monuments of the Incas, 1982, Little, Brown and Co.
Huarochiri Manuscript - in Meddens [1997]
Hyslop, John. Inka settlement planning, 1990. University of Texas Press
Gasparini, G and L Margolies. Inca Architecture, 1980. Indiana University Press
Matos, Ramiro. Inca Ceramics in the volume The Incas, Art and Symbol, 2005(?), Banco de Credito del Peru
Hyslop, John. Inka settlement planning, 1990. University of Texas Press
Gasparini, G and L Margolies. Inca Architecture, 1980. Indiana University Press
Matos, Ramiro. Inca Ceramics in the volume The Incas, Art and Symbol, 2005(?), Banco de Credito del Peru
Meddens, F.M. Function and meaning of the usnu in late Horizon Peru. 1997, Tawantinsuyu Vol 3, Australian National University, Canberra
Molina, Cristobal de (of Cuzco). Relation of the fables and rites of the Incas, translated by CR Markham, 1873. Hakluyt Society
Molina, Cristobal de (el Almagrista) - in Hemming and Ranney [1982]
Murua, Martin de - in Hemming [1974]
Pease, Franklin. Introduction in the volume The Incas, Art and Symbol, 2005(?), Banco de Credito del Peru
Pino Jose Luis M. El ushnu y la organizacion espacial astronomica en la sierra central del Chinchaysuyu, 2005. Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos
Pizarro, Pedro. Relation of the discovery and conquest of the kingdoms of Peru. Translated by Ainsworth Means, 1921. The Cortes Society
Santa Cruz Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamayhua, Juan de - in Hyslop [1990] and also Meddens [1997]
Xerez, Franciso de - in Zarate [1968]
Zarate, Agustin de. The Discovery and Conquest of Peru supplemented with Eyewitness Accounts. Translated by JM Cohen. 1968, Penguin Books
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